History in Botswana

Archaeological evidence records human use of the Tsodilo Hills in north-western Botswana for at least 100,000 years, although occupation was not continuous. The area contains more than 4,500 rock paintings across about 10 square kilometres. Hambukushu and San communities regard Tsodilo as a sacred landscape connected with ancestors. Toutswemogala Hill provides evidence of settlement from the seventh century into the late nineteenth century, including house foundations, burials, a stone wall and vitrified cattle dung. Cattle keeping was central there, alongside goats, sheep, hunting and gathering. Before colonial rule, Botswana did not form one centralized state. Several Tswana-speaking merafe, meaning political communities or polities, developed different power structures. A Kgosi, or ruler, and the Dikgosi, the plural, exercised authority through institutions and relationships that varied between communities. The kgotla served as a place for consultation, political discussion and judicial decision-making. Archaeology and oral traditions both provide evidence, but they do not always describe the past in the same way. During the nineteenth century, Bakwena, Bangwato, Bangwaketse and Batawana expanded or consolidated their influence. The Mfecane or Difaqane reshaped migration and political relations across the region, including movements associated with Mzilikazi. Sechele I ruled the Bakwena from 1833 to 1892. The London Missionary Society and missionaries including Robert Moffat and David Livingstone contributed to the spread of Christianity, schooling, medical practice and Setswana writing, but missionaries were not the only agents of historical change. Britain established the Bechuanaland Protectorate on 31 March 1885. British administration relied substantially on Dikgosi and Resident Commissioners. Earlier protectorate areas extended at times south of present-day Botswana, while British Bechuanaland became part of the Cape Colony in 1895. Railway concessions along the eastern border led to a connection in 1896–1897, and Mahikeng remained the colonial administrative capital until 1965. In 1895, Khama III, Sebele I and Bathoen I travelled to London to oppose the proposed transfer of their territories to the British South Africa Company. Constitutional reforms in 1960 and 1961 moved the protectorate towards self-government. The House of Chiefs became a predecessor of the Ntlo ya Dikgosi, the national advisory body representing traditional leadership. Botswana held its first general election in March 1965, with Seretse Khama becoming prime minister, and became the independent Republic of Botswana on 30 September 1966. The 1966 Constitution combined Westminster-style institutions with an executive presidency. Later changes introduced a presidential election system in 1969, adjusted presidential eligibility after a 1987 referendum, and in 1997 established a ten-year presidential term limit, succession rules for the vice-president, an Independent Electoral Commission, voting at age 18 and voting from abroad. Reforms in 2005 and 2007 reorganized the House of Chiefs into the tribally neutral Ntlo ya Dikgosi. Seretse Khama served as president from 1966 to 1980, followed by Ketumile Masire from 1980 to 1998, Festus Mogae from 1998 to 2008, Seretse Khama Ian Khama from 2008 to 2018, Mokgweetsi Masisi from 2018 to 2024 and Duma Boko from 2024. The Botswana Democratic Party governed from independence until 2024. The United Democratic Congress won the October 2024 election, producing Botswana's first national transfer of power from the BDP to the opposition through an election. Diamonds changed Botswana's economic history. The BK1 discovery at Orapa in 1967 was followed by the consolidation of mineral rights under the state, production at Orapa from 1971 or 1972, Letlhakane in 1975 and Jwaneng in 1982. Diamond revenue and cautious financial and development planning helped transform Botswana from a poor protectorate into a middle-income economy, while also creating continuing dependence on mining. Botswana's public historical narrative often emphasizes Kagisano, Botho, unity, the kgotla, peaceful democracy and developmental government. Other perspectives examine colonial borders, unequal rankings among merafe, San and other Indigenous land and recognition claims, and tensions between national history, local oral history and archaeology. The 1895 journey of the three Dikgosi is likewise interpreted both as a defence of sovereignty and as part of a later national story. Research may use archaeological excavation, radiocarbon dating, stratigraphy, laws, parliamentary records, missionary and colonial sources, oral history, museums and monuments. Excavation and anthropological research are regulated by Botswana's heritage and research laws, including the Monuments and Relics Act 2001 and the Anthropological Research Act 1967. There is no single central archive or learning system that fully represents every historical period; researchers therefore combine museums, monuments, government and parliamentary records, community knowledge and international heritage documentation.