History in Eswatini

The earliest evidence includes an archaeological sequence from the Early Stone Age through the Middle and Later Stone Age to the Iron Age. Ngwenya Mines, also known as Lion Cavern, preserves evidence of red-ochre and haematite mining dated to about 43,000 BC and iron mining from approximately 400 AD. Modern mining at the site took place from 1964 to 1977. Archaeologists continue to reassess some dates and interpretations. Rock art and mining remains are treated here as archaeological and heritage evidence, not as a separate art or traditions subject. Accounts of settlement and migration during the 15th and 16th centuries connect Bantu- and Nguni-speaking movements with the Dlamini and Ngwane lineages. Oral genealogies and archaeology provide different kinds of evidence, and they do not establish a fully reliable one-to-one list of rulers for the earliest periods. The bakaNgwane were present in the south by the 1750s. Settlement, iron technology and regional exchange shaped communities before later state consolidation. Ngwane III is associated with an 18th-century base around Shiselweni and Hluti. Sobhuza I expanded and consolidated the polity from about 1820, while Mswati II expanded it further between 1840 and 1868. Regiments, conquest, incorporation, diplomacy and marriage alliances all contributed to this process. Neighboring Sotho and Nguni groups, including Emakhandzambili communities, remained part of the changing political landscape. The historical terms Ngwane and kaNgwane refer to earlier names and identities connected with the kingdom; Dlamini identifies the ruling lineage. European pressure reshaped landholding and sovereignty. Britain recognized the Swazi polity in 1881, while land and mineral concessions expanded during the 1880s. The Foreign Jurisdiction Act of 1890 and the 1894–1899 Transvaal Protectorate period brought changing Boer and British arrangements. After Bhunu died in 1899, LaboTsibeni Gwamile served as regent from 1899 to 1921. Britain took over in 1902 and introduced High Commissioner and Resident Commissioner structures between 1903 and 1906. The Lifa Fund was created in 1907 to support land repurchase. Sobhuza II was installed in 1921. Indirect rule preserved much of the traditional system, while land and sovereignty conflicts remained central through the colonial period, including the Second World War from 1939 to 1945. Eswatini moved through self-government and independence in a defined constitutional sequence. The 1963 Independence Constitution preceded the first Legislative Council on 9 September 1964 and protected-state status in 1967. The country became independent and joined the Commonwealth on 6 September 1968, with Sobhuza II as king. The 1968 Constitution established a pluralist system with political parties. After the 1972 post-independence elections, Proclamation No. 12 of 12 April 1973 abrogated the constitution and transferred legislative, executive and judicial authority to the king. The 1978 Parliament Order formalized the Tinkhundla system, in which an inkhundla is a local constituency and political-administrative forum. A 1993 revision and later constitutional review led to the 2005 Constitution, which entered into force on 26 July 2005 or in February 2006 according to different government documents. Sobhuza II died in 1982. Regents Dzeliwe and Ntfombi governed during the transition before Mswati III was crowned on 25 April 1986. The official name changed from Swaziland to the Kingdom of Eswatini on 19 April 2018. Eswatini’s current system combines the monarchy, traditional councils, the Tinkhundla framework and Parliament. The protests and violence of June and July and September and October 2021 remain contested in public memory: government accounts described civil unrest, while United Nations, Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights and independent reports described protests, deaths, violence and human-rights concerns. Research uses different sources for different questions. The Eswatini National Archives preserves public and non-public records under the Archives Act 5 of 1971; research normally takes place onsite from Monday to Friday, 8:00 to 16:30, with copies and research services subject to prescribed fees. The Eswatini National Trust Commission, established under the National Trust Commission Act 9 of 1972, manages museums, monuments and cultural heritage and provides tours and educational outreach. Parliament holds constitutional and parliamentary records. Oral testimony, clan genealogies and community memory add evidence about identity and continuity, but their claims require contextual assessment rather than automatic acceptance. Official records also need source criticism because national narratives can present a selective or teleological account. Comparing archives, archaeology, oral histories and contemporary records is therefore necessary when dates, authority or responsibility are disputed. History is taught through Eswatini’s education system, including a localized secondary curriculum under the SGCSE framework introduced from 2006 and taught from 2009. Secondary History is an elective, and tertiary institutions provide routes connected with teacher training. There is no single institution responsible for all historical work in Eswatini; archives, heritage bodies, education institutions, Parliament and community custodians perform different functions.