Criminal law in Rwanda

Rwanda’s Constitution and Penal Code form the main basis of criminal law. Article 17 of the Constitution establishes personal criminal responsibility. Article 18 protects legality, the ban on retroactive criminal punishment, information about the accusation and the right to prepare a defence. Article 19 protects the presumption of innocence and a public, fair hearing. The main Penal Code is Law N°68/2018, amended by Laws N°69/2019 and N°059/2023. Rwanda has abolished the death penalty. Criminal offences include killing and bodily harm, property offences, sexual offences and gender-based violence, trafficking, drug offences, corruption, economic and financial offences, terrorism, genocide ideology, offences by public officials and cybercrime. The Penal Code also regulates attempts, participation, aiding and situations where several offences overlap. The Rwanda Investigation Bureau, called RIB, conducts criminal investigations. The Rwanda National Police, called RNP, handles public security, traffic enforcement, arrests and legally authorised investigative acts during preliminary investigations. The National Public Prosecution Authority, called NPPA, reviews case files, decides whether to prosecute, requests provisional detention where appropriate and conducts prosecutions. It also handles serious, international, economic, gender-based violence, child, drug and cybercrime matters. The Rwandan Forensic Laboratory provides forensic support. RIB, RNP and NPPA use different responsibilities, so a police report, an investigation and a prosecution are not the same step. A suspected offence can be reported at an RIB station. Crime information and emergencies can be reported through 166. Child abuse can be reported through 116, gender-based violence through 3512 and Isange One Stop Centre through 3029. RIB complaints and corruption reports can be directed to 2040. NPPA can be contacted through 3677 or 3935. The available national pathway does not show a separate city-level criminal procedure for Rwanda. An investigator’s summons requires attendance. Failure to attend can lead to a prosecutor’s warrant for forced appearance. An arrested person should receive information about the accusation and rights without delay, as well as an arrest copy or detention statement. The person may have legal counsel, a trusted person and an interpreter when language needs require one. The right to challenge evidence, cross-examine where the procedure permits it and receive a public, fair hearing within a reasonable time remains relevant throughout the case. Ordinary RIB custody can last up to five days. In a red-handed case, the initial period is up to 72 hours, with a possible prosecutor-authorised period of up to five additional days under the law. After the investigative periods, a judge decides on provisional detention. The initial provisional detention period is one month, with extensions governed by law. Release is the general principle, detention is an exception, and bail can be available for a bailable offence. Unlawful detention is itself punishable. The court system includes 41 Primary Courts, 12 Intermediate Courts, the High Court with five chambers, the Court of Appeal and the Supreme Court. Primary Courts hear lower-level criminal matters. Intermediate Courts hear, among other matters, offences carrying more than five years of imprisonment unless a statutory exception applies. The High Court hears serious and international offences assigned to it under Law N°30/2018. Appeals proceed to the court with jurisdiction over the decision. Military courts are separate. Gacaca is no longer a currently operating criminal court. Possible sanctions include fixed-term imprisonment, life imprisonment, fines, community service, suspended sentences, restitution or compensation, confiscation and seizure. Road offences can also lead to licence suspension or vehicle impoundment. A presidential commutation can shorten imprisonment but does not erase the conviction or remove an obligation to compensate a victim. The Rwanda Correctional Service, called RCS, manages imprisonment, education, vocational training, rehabilitation and reintegration. Current justice policy promotes imprisonment as a last resort and supports diversion, probation, parole, plea bargaining, mediation and restorative approaches where the law allows. Plea bargaining allows an accused person to plead guilty in exchange for a charge reduction or a prosecution request below the maximum sentence, together with possible release or restitution terms. Victim-offender mediation uses dialogue, reconciliation and reparation in legally permitted cases; it does not replace prosecution where the law excludes that option. The NPPA Victims and Witnesses Protection Unit can arrange protective measures and support with evidence, health, social needs and mental wellbeing. Victims and witnesses also have duties to cooperate and attend when lawfully summoned. False information and evidence manipulation can constitute offences, and private retaliation is not lawful. A child is under 18 years of age for the child-justice rules. Criminal responsibility begins at 14, while a child under 14 is not prosecuted. A child aged 14 to 17 may face prosecution, but not in an adult detention facility. Child-specific procedures, a specialised child and family chamber, legal representation, diversion and probation take account of welfare, personality and the child’s best interests. A National Diversion Framework was announced on 23 June 2026, but detailed local access arrangements are not established in the available research. Road offences are governed by Law N°014/2026 of 6 March 2026, which replaced Law N°34/1987. Rwanda drives on the right. Driving under the influence, speeding, phone use while driving, unsafe vehicles, driving without a licence, dangerous driving and disobeying an officer can trigger enforcement. RNP Traffic Police uses e-tickets and camera tickets; the payment deadline is three days, after which a late fee may apply. A serious offence or accident can move from traffic enforcement into an investigation and NPPA case file. Licence suspension can apply even when the licence was issued abroad. Law N°60/2018 covers digital offences such as unauthorised access, interception, interference with data or systems, misuse of devices, computer forgery, computer fraud and indecent or child-related digital content. RIB’s Cyber Crimes Division and digital-forensics services investigate these matters, while NPPA prosecutes them. Digital evidence may require cooperation with telecommunications or financial institutions. Child online protection is also addressed by Instructions N°001/MINICT/2024. Legal advice and representation through MAJ, the state legal-aid service available in every district, are free for poor and vulnerable people. A criminal-record certificate can be requested online through Irembo for 1,200 RWF within Rwanda and is listed as taking about three working days. The duration of a criminal case depends on the offence, evidence, detention reviews and court level rather than one fixed national timetable.