Mozambique’s Constitution gives Portuguese the status of língua oficial, meaning the official language used for state administration and formal public acts. The Constitution also recognizes national languages as part of the country’s cultural and educational heritage and supports their development and wider use as languages of identity. They do not have the same official status as Portuguese. The state portal lists 20 national languages, including Emakhuwa, Xichangana, Cinyanja, Elomwe, Cisena, Echuwabo, Cindau, Xitswa, Xironga, Cicopi, Gitonga, Kimwani, Makonde, Cinyungwe, Ciyao, Cisenga, Cishona, Ekoti, Memane and Zulu. Names and classifications can differ between sources. A língua materna is a person’s first language, a língua segunda is an additional language learned later, and a língua veicular is a shared language used between people with different first languages. Portuguese is also used in a Mozambican national variety often called Português Moçambicano. Local speech varieties may be described as variantes linguísticas or dialectos, but those labels are not socially interchangeable everywhere. Regional use is diverse. Northern and northeastern areas use languages such as Emakhuwa, Cinyanja, Elomwe, Makonde and Kimwani. Central areas include Cisena, Cindau, Echuwabo and Cinyungwe. Southern areas include Xichangana, Xironga, Xitswa, Cicopi and Gitonga. These patterns differ by province and community rather than following one national language map. In Maputo Province, the 2017 census recorded Portuguese as a mother tongue for 49.5% and Xichangana for 36.6%. The 2017 census recorded mother tongue among people aged five and older, not general ability in every language. Its reported shares were Emakhuwa 26.1%, Portuguese 16.6%, Xichangana 8.6%, Cinyanja 8.1%, Elomwe 7.1%, Cisena 7.1%, Echuwabo 4.7%, Cindau 3.6%, Xitswa 3.6%, other Mozambican languages 11.8%, unknown 1.8% and other foreign languages 0.5%. A separate analysis reported that about 57% spoke Portuguese, often as a second language acquired through school. Rural and suburban communities are particularly likely to rely on local languages in daily life. Formal administration and justice generally use Portuguese for written and spoken state acts. Local languages can be decisive for explanations, mediation, community information and practical access, but they are not automatically co-official in a province or institution. Mozambique has no general language examination for everyday participation, and no general national entitlement to free individual interpretation has been established. Translation or interpreting depends on the case and the institution. The Estratégia de Expansão do Ensino Bilingue 2020–2029 supports bilingual schooling. In the intended model, a local language is used for teaching in grades 1 to 3 alongside Portuguese as a subject, transition takes place in grades 4 and 5, and Portuguese becomes the complete teaching medium from grade 6. Teachers may continue using a local language to explain difficult material, and examinations use Portuguese and the relevant local language. Coverage is not yet uniform nationwide. A parallel Portuguese-medium path also exists, with local languages mainly serving as support. Adult education uses a local language at Level 1 and Portuguese at Level 2; reported curricula combine Portuguese with five local languages, while written standardization has been reported for 19 local languages. Rádio Moçambique broadcasts in Portuguese, English and 19 Mozambican Bantu languages. Provincial stations mainly use local languages, although the exact language choice and reach depend on the station and region. Local languages support identity, cultural life, community information, health communication, administrative access and political participation. Portuguese remains the main bridge for interregional communication and institutional participation. The latest figures in the available research are based mainly on the 2017 census, so they should not be treated as an unsupported current estimate.
Language in Mozambique
Mozambique’s language landscape combines Portuguese as the only official language with many national languages used in homes, communities, education, media and culture. Portuguese connects people across regions and dominates formal administration, justice, written procedures and higher education, while local-language use varies strongly by province and community. In the 2017 census, Emakhuwa was the most commonly reported mother tongue among people aged five and older at 26.1%, while Portuguese was a mother tongue for 16.6%; about 57% were reported to speak Portuguese, often as a second language. Access to public information can therefore depend on both Portuguese and the relevant local language.
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